EXTENDED SUMMARY

Neoliberal education policies increasingly shape vocational education systems to meet labor market demands, systematically integrating students into production processes at an early age. In Turkey, vocational education has historically been rooted in apprenticeship programs but has been institutionalized within formal education through the 1986 Vocational Education Law. Apprenticeship Training Centers were established to train semi-skilled labor for industry, and in 2001, these centers were renamed as Vocational Education Centers (MEMs) with added certification mechanisms. After 2016, the Vocational Education and Certification Centers (MESEM) model was implemented as a hybrid system within secondary education. State-funded apprenticeships and workplace insurance enabled more systematic integration of students into labor processes. MESEM functions both as a pathway for acquiring vocational competencies and as a formal certification mechanism, blurring the boundaries between education and employment and operating as a structured transition regime from youth to work. MESEM reproduces gendered patterns of vocational stratification. Male students are predominantly guided toward technical and production-oriented fields, while female students concentrate in service and care-oriented sectors. Representation of women in mixed fields remains limited, and low-paid, insecure jobs disproportionately affect female students. This configuration reinforces horizontal and vertical gender-based occupational divisions within the vocational education system.
From a sociological perspective, MESEM’s hybrid structure serves as a formal mechanism structuring transitions between education and labor markets. Particularly, students from low-income or economically vulnerable households spend the majority of their week in workplaces, contributing to the reproduction of intersecting gender and class inequalities. Male students access higher-paying and more prestigious technical fields, whereas female students are concentrated in low-wage, insecure service sectors. Early labor market integration for economically disadvantaged youth intensifies interlinked gender and class disparities. Quantitative expansion and program diversity within MESEM institutionalize the gendered division of labor in vocational education. Technical and production-focused fields provide men with greater employment and income opportunities, while women remain concentrated in lower-paid and less secure occupations. Even in mixed programs, women’s participation is limited, leaving persistent inequalities. Structural arrangements reproduce gender norms and class-based differences across the education-to-work transition. Neoliberal reforms have accelerated early vocational tracking, promoting participation in production processes from younger ages and creating flexible boundaries between education and employment. Pilot programs starting at lower secondary levels reinforce early inclusion in labor processes, heightening risks of perpetuating gendered and class-based inequalities. Male students continue to dominate technical fields, while female students are funneled into service and care occupations, reinforcing both horizontal and vertical stratification.
Accordingly, MESEM cannot be evaluated solely on the basis of skill acquisition or employability. Vocational education policies must be designed with attention to gender equality and class justice. Promoting mixed-gender programs, directing female students toward technical fields, and increasing male participation in care and service sectors are essential interventions to mitigate gendered stratification. Support mechanisms such as scholarships, transportation, and accommodation for socioeconomically disadvantaged students must be strengthened, and apprenticeships and internships should be supervised and secured. Coordination mechanisms among schools, employers, and policymakers should focus on gender equality and social justice. In the fields dominated by women, working conditions and social recognition should be improved, while structural measures should incentivize male participation in these sectors. In conclusion, MESEM and similar vocational education models function as mechanisms that reproduce gender-based occupational segregation and intersecting class inequalities within the context of neoliberal policies and labor market-oriented reforms. Thus, vocational education policy must not only focus on skill development and employability but also critically address gender equality and class justice to prevent the perpetuation of structural inequities.